Disasters threaten resources as well as displace millions of people globally. It is undisputable that disasters have gender dimensions. However, most African countries are still lagging behind as far as the holistic integration of gender mainstreaming into national policies, particularly on Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR). The purpose of this article was to unpack the consequence of overlooking gender in DRR, thereby highlighting its importance. The study followed a comparative study design, by using two case studies of Mumbwa District in Zambia and Chivi District in Zimbabwe. The specific objectives were to examine the disaster risks in both Mumbwa and Chivi districts, analyse the DRR strategies used in both districts and highlight the critical success factors derived from gender mainstreaming in DRR in these cases. Findings showed that gender mainstreaming is not only an important tool in DRR but also a sustainable development initiative. Despite challenges faced by countries in DRR, gender mainstreaming should always be considered as their first line of action in DRR.
Disaster risks threaten economies and livelihoods in many African countries. According to the International Strategy for Disaster Risk Reduction (ISDR
The aim of this study was to highlight gender mainstreaming as an imperative and holistic, cost-effective and long-term solution to DRR using two cases from Zambia and Zimbabwe. This aim is addressed by the following objectives:
to examine the disaster risks in both Mumbwa and Chivi districts
to analyse the DRR strategies used in both districts
to highlight the critical success factors derived from gender mainstreaming in DRR in these cases.
Mumbwa District lies in the western part of the Central Province of Zambia. According to the Central Statistical Office of Zambia (2010), Mumbwa District has a population of 226 177 of which women constituted more than half of the total population. The area has an average annual maximum temperature of 30°C, with mean annual rainfalls ranging between 600 mm and 800 mm (Ministry of Tourism and Arts [Zambia]
For the second case study, Chivi District located southwest of the Masvingo Province in Zimbabwe was chosen. Chivi District has a population of 166 049, with women forming a majority – 54.5% (ZimSat
This article is a desktop research based on studies conducted by James-Sebro (
The article follows a comparative research design, a research methodology that aims to make comparisons across different spatial locations, principles or values. Camari (
Data analysis was performed by comparing the two cases by using international organisations standards as benchmarks. Strategies from the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) such as the Post 1999 Strategy, the Hyogo Framework on DRR (2005) and the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework were employed in this study. This study also employs a theoretical framework from Sen’s Capabilities Theory (
Gender mainstreaming is a strategy for gendered concerns and experiences to be integrated into design, policies and programmes in all spheres (World Health Organisation 2010). According to ECOSOC (
Sustainable Development Goal number 5 seeks to achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls (UN Women
Disaster, according to the ISDR (
Global change has become a fact of life, and disasters are on the increase. Turnbull et al. (
International organisations recognise the importance of gender mainstreaming if disaster reduction plans are to be sustainable. The United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) Hyogo Framework for Action (
Women and men continue to have different access to vital resources globally because of cultural and societal values and expectations. In Africa and many Asian countries, most women still lack access to crucial resources which can add their resilience. Musyoki and Khayesi (
The rise in disasters globally makes careful planning and a holistic approach to DRR critical. Disasters are now believed to be a manifestation of poor planning and weak policies. According to Turnbull et al. (
This draws this article back to the view that drought risks cut across the social fabric and are divided or shaped by age, ethnicity, physical ability and gender. Hence, the socially excluded and economically insecure are worst affected. Gender mainstreaming becomes critical especially in the patriarchal African communities. It goes without saying that effective DRR programmes must be engendered.
This article followed all ethical standards for a research without direct contact with human or animal subjects.
In this section, the article highlights the disaster risks experienced, the DRR strategies adopted, as well as the critical success factors derived from gender mainstreaming by using a comparative case analysis of the districts of Mumbwa in Zambia and Chivi in Zimbabwe.
Chivi District despite being a drought prone area, the economy base is centred on agriculture. The small holder farmers in this community often have their livestock and crop production disrupted by the several episodes of drought experienced in the area. Food insecurity is a major issue in the area. According to Chineka (
Drought coupled with diseases caused a huge cattle loss in Mumbwa District. According to Heifer (
Conservation farming in Chivi targeted to reduce drought shocks through increasing agricultural production. It sought to alleviate drought risk through sustainable green farming. Farmers participated on voluntary basis. They allocated 0.1 hectares of their land for conservation farming. To maximise water and manure, farmers would only plant crops in prepared pits. The programme empowered farmers with sustainable farming practices such as mulching and integrated pest management. According to Gukurume et al. (
Mumbwa adopted the pass on the gift programme. This intervention targeted mostly women, men and youth. A heifer would be passed to a family under the ownership of a woman, and if it produces, they would pass the calf to the next person on the list. The conservation farming programme in Chivi tackled drought from the farmer’s angle, whereas the pass on the gift sought to reduce drought vulnerability through empowering women. This cattle provision project aimed to build economic and environmental resilience through building self-reliant community by increasing crop yields and nutrition as well as promoting agro-ecological farming. This was achieved by building the capacity of rural women and men. Both women and men were trained in rearing cattle. The project targeted social development through gender integration. The project was a huge success, and communities formed their own co-operatives from this project. It spread to other communities and was adopted by other NGOs such as World Vision.
Although both programmes sought to reduce drought risks, they reflect critical gender dimensions. The Chivi case bundled farmers as a homogenous entity. Chivi District has a high female population which constitute most the smallholder farmers. Mumbwa case study brought in gender paradigm. It is also crucial to note that although the Heifer project targeted to empower women, it integrated men as well, which is gender mainstreaming in its holistic sense. Although addressing the past gender inequalities in patriarchal societies is important, the fact is that men still make decision in critical issues and are also vulnerable to disaster shocks, hence the need to harmonise both parties and allow them to showcase their capabilities.
Mumbwa District project tackled disaster management from grass-roots level, in which community members participated in every step of the intervention programme. Mumbwa project’s success rests on the inclusive approach more specifically on gender integration. The project ran almost concurrently with gender education, monitoring and reviewing. According to Heifer (
Conservation agriculture being a sound, environmentally friendly approach, it is a fact that it is labour-intensive and adds on to the high demanding gender roles of women. Gender mainstreaming opens up the real needs of the community and results in responsive and sustainable projects formulation. The life span of the conservation agriculture project in Chivi was dependent on donor support. Gukurume et al. (
Overlooking gender issues in DRR programmes is not only the overlooking of women and men dilemmas but also a shear negligence of root causes of disaster shocks in the communities. Analysing the social construct of disasters, Enarson (
Gender is a sensitive topic in rural communities, and hence to address, it would require more subtle approaches to achieve gender balance. Gender awareness training, a continuous assessment and review of gender projects would in the long run build gender equity. Conservation agriculture is eco-friendly and has a potential to boost productivity; however, it is labour-intensive. For people in Chivi to have appreciated it more, the community plot (Munda wezunde raMambo) could have been made the demo plot, and then community work collectively and reap the benefits of it. This would have maintained the traditional practices and strengthen social cohesion against a disaster risk, which is crucial in building resilient communities.
It is vital to note that the success of the Mumbwa District project was not only hinged on gender integration, but also on community capabilities. Most rural programmes fail because of exclusion of some community members. Social cohesion is crucial for any development. In rural communities, societal acceptance matters and so are their perspectives, and hence, residents do not operate in isolation. For DRR programmes like any other community programmes to be sustainable, they have to promote social cohesion, seek to empower the beneficiaries, preserve traditional practices and integrate gender and youth practically. The sustainability concept supports this and highlights that economic development and environmental sustainability cannot be achieved in isolation of the social aspect. In human livelihoods, gender forms the core of the social continuum. Hence to address issues that affect any society, the core must be levelled and rationalised to accept new developments.
This article concludes that disasters affect communities, and these units are not homogenous. They are underlined by thick social dimensions in which gender plays an integral part, especially in the African context. Results of this study showed that gender mainstreaming was Mumbwa’s secret to the success of its DRR projects. Lacking thereof it in Chivi’s case weakened the Conservation Agriculture Project. Recognition of gender lines does not only address social injustices in communities but also builds social cohesion, thereby strengthening social networks that are vital in DRR. Hence, gender mainstreaming is not only a critical tool in DRR but also a vital step towards sustainable development. Gender mainstreaming must compliment all set of activities in any DRR programme. Governments should get more involved in community programmes by prioritising women’s and men’s capabilities.
This study also recommends that there should not be a disparity between the gender mainstreaming frameworks and communities they are drawn for. This is common with generic frameworks that tend to overlook the subtle social lines binding every community. A top–down approach to a disaster project management is detrimental to disaster risk reduction. Communities need to own a project for them to build an intrinsic motivation towards its success, and only this can yield a sustainable project.
It is undisputable that rural women carry a heavy workload as far as gender roles are concerned. This makes them immobile and lack social networks and ultimately vulnerable when disasters strike. Hence, DRR projects should take cognisance of this – labour-intensive projects such as the conservation farming add an extra burden. Better technologies can be sought to ensure adaptability of these communities to disaster risks. Drought-resistant crop varieties can be researched and be used in the area instead of changing the farming system.
Chivi is a patriarchal community; women manage farms on behalf of their husbands. Hence, major decisions such as changing the farming system will take time to implement as they must be made by men who in most cases work far off the family compound. Moreover, conservation farming practices such as
This paper was presented at the first National Conference on Disaster Risk Science and Management in ‘South Africa’s Response in a changing global environment’, 02–04 March 2015, at the Ranch Resort, Polokwane, South Africa, jointly hosted by the University of Venda, School of Environmental Sciences, South Africa, and National Disaster Management Centre (representing Department of Cooperative Governance), South Africa. Faculty collaborators: Mr Tendayi Gondo, Prof. Agnes Musyoki and Mr Edmore Kori.
I (Ms Jestina Chineka) would like to thank my co-authors, Professor A. Musyoki, Mr E. Kori and Dr H. Chikoore for their unwavering support and guidance throughout this research. A special mention goes to the
The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.
J.C. came up with the concept and drafted the article by using inputs from co-authors and reviewers. A.M. contributed on gender issues, H.C. contributed with the drought concepts and E.K. advised on the use of comparative study design.
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.
The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the authors.