The northern coast of Central Java Province, Indonesia, is considered as the critical area of flooding. The area always suffers from flooding because of heavy rainfall and/or sea level rise. Flooding brings a lot of consequences, including people’s suffering, property damage and property loss. A number of efforts have been carried out to manage flood problems, yet the achievement is incomplete without stakeholder involvement. Stakeholders have a very important role in flood risk reduction. A common understanding on the existence and role of stakeholders is important in achieving community resilience. The aim of this article was to analyse interest and cooperation among stakeholders in flood risk reduction. In-depth interviews were conducted to identify and analyse interest and influence of stakeholders in relation to flood risk reduction. MIC-MAC (Cross-impact Matrix Multiplication Applied to Classification) and MACTOR (Matrix of Alliance and Conflict: Tactics, Objectives, and Recommendations) methods were employed to analyse collected data. The results of this study indicated that restoration and humanity are the key objectives with major influence in lowering flood risk. The objectives are critical for the success of flood risk reduction efforts. The Disaster Management Agency is identified as the main stakeholder with the most important role in reducing flood risk in Central Java Province.
The Indonesia Disaster Data and Information shows a long-term upward trend in the number of floods in Indonesia, in which 5233 occurrences or approximately 38.99% of the total number of natural disasters occurred between 1815 and 2015. From 2011 to 2015, 368 cases of flooding in the Central Java Province, Indonesia, were reported, and the number has been continuously rising ever since (Isa, Sugiyanto & Susilowati
Flood risks have a propensity to extend massively in the future, especially because of the impacts of climate change (Pitt
Flooding can have a critical impact on communities, both directly and indirectly (Isa et al.
In order to reduce the impacts, Morton et al. (
Reed et al. (
Crosby (
According to Iqbal (
Freeman advances that stakeholders are an important group for the continuity and success of a corporation and/or community in achieving their goals (Miles
The aim of this study was to identify stakeholders’ interests or key variables in conducting flood risk reduction activities and to analyse stakeholder relationships in conducting flood risk reduction.
This study was conducted in three sites that represent the eastern, central and western part of the northern coast of Central Java Province; they are Pati Regency, Pekalongan Regency and Semarang City (
Location of the study sites.
Central Java is bordered by the Indian Ocean and Yogyakarta to the south, West Java to the west, East Java to the east and the Java Sea to the north. Central Java is located between 5° 40’ and 8° 30’ South Latitude and between 108° 30’ and 111° 30’ East Longitude. More than 53% of the Central Java region is lowland. The lowlands lie on the north coast and the west coast. The north coast is more vulnerable to flooding. The flooding is caused by high rainfall, overflow of the rivers and the damage of dams and/or water gates. High intensity flooding occurs in the Pati Regency, Pekalongan Regency and the Semarang City (Isa et al.
Map influence and interdependence between the objectives of stakeholders.
Primary data were collected using questionnaires. Structural analysis was performed with the analytical tools such as MIC-MAC (Cross-impact Matrix Multiplication Applied to Classification) and MACTOR (Matrix of Alliance and Conflict: Tactics, Objectives, and Recommendations).
Cross-impact Matrix Multiplication Applied to Classification is an analytical tool used to analyse the drive power and dependence power of factors and various objectives of stakeholders. The Cross-impact Matrix Multiplication Applied to Classification principle is based on the multiplication properties of matrices. Analysis using MIC-MAC is performed to identify the key factors that drive the system in various categories. Based on their drive power and dependence power, the factors have been classified into four categories which are autonomous factors, linkage factors, dependent factors and independent factors (Rajesh et al.
Matrix of Alliance and Conflict: Tactics, Objectives, and Recommendations is an analytical tool used to analyse the influences and interests (objectives) of stakeholders (Mangifera & Isa,
This article followed all ethical standards for research without direct contact with human or animal subjects.
In their flood risk reduction efforts, stakeholders have various strategic roles. Their roles are explained based on the analysis of objectives and relationships among them. In this research, 22 individuals represented the main actors in flood risk reduction.
The stakeholder analysis consisted of three stages that start initially with the identification of objectives of a key person in flood risk reduction. It is the most important stage for the whole process. The second stage is the explanation of relationships among stakeholders’ objectives. It explains the relationship between the goals of each stakeholder in reducing the risk of flooding, and the last stage is the identification of key stakeholders’ objectives in flood risk reduction.
The list of stakeholders’ objectives was further processed based on structural analysis with MIC-MAC as the analytical tool. This analysis was used to describe the relationship among the objectives of each stakeholder in conducting the related activities (Wajdi, Isa, & Setyawan
The results of MIC-MAC analysis on the stakeholders’ objectives in flood risk reduction were classified into four quadrants (Isa, Sugiyanto & Susilowati
Quadrant 1 is an autonomous factor (weak influence driver – weak dependent). This quadrant includes objectives that have a weak influence and dependence. The objective is less related to flood risk reduction and may have few relationships that will be eliminated from the objectives of stakeholders in flood risk reduction.
Quadrant 2 is dependent factors (weak influence – strongly dependent). It includes objectives that have weak influence and strong dependence. The objectives in this quadrant are non-independent ones.
Quadrant 3 is a linkage factor (strong influence – strongly dependent). It includes objectives that have a strong influence and strong dependence. They should be determined meticulously as the relationship between goals is unstable.
Quadrant 4 is an independent factor (strong influence – weak dependent). This quadrant includes objectives that have strong strength and weak dependence. The objectives are the key factors in flood risk reduction.
The objectives in the upper-left quadrant (restoration and humanity) imply the high influence and low dependence of other variables in flood risk reduction. These objectives have major influence in reducing flood risk. They, thus, become the key objectives that are critical in the success of flood risk reduction efforts. Restoration enables stakeholders to undertake the development, maintenance and improvement of natural resources and/or infrastructures, such as rivers, embankments and floodgates, which have been proven to lower the risk of flooding, while humanity raises awareness and empathy to others. These two objectives have the greatest impact in reducing flood risk.
The second most important quadrant is the upper-right quadrant. The two objectives included in this quadrant are main duty and safety. The objective of carrying out the main duty is important for government agencies because it is their main activity as well as a major indicator of the performance of their agencies. The objective of promoting people’s safety is also an important goal for an individual or group or organisation in reducing flood risk.
The lower-right quadrant is dependent on weak driver and strongly dependent variables. The objective of this quadrant is the element of awareness, which is a non-independent factor. Image, income, relocation and incentives are also classified in this quadrant. They are the objectives of several stakeholders in conducting flood risk reduction activities.
Relationship between stakeholders’ objectives.
Stakeholders involved in the activities of flood risk reduction have different influences and interests (objectives). Based on the identification and analysis of stakeholders, flood risk reduction activities in the northern coastal area of Central Java Province, Indonesia, were conducted by the Provincial Disaster Management Agency (Badan Penanggulangan Bencana Daerah [BPBD] Jateng), Semarang City Disaster Management Agency (Badan Penanggulangan Bencana Daerah [BPBD] Semarang), Pati Regional Disaster Management Agency (Badan Penanggulangan Bencana Daerah [BPBD] Pati), Pekalongan Regional Disaster Management Agency (BPBD Pekalongan), Regional Development Planning Agency (Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Daerah[APPEDA]), Public Health Office (Dinas Kesehatan), Public Works Service (Dinas Pekerjaan Umum), Environmental Services (Dinas Lingkungan Hidup), businessmen, village heads, Search and Rescue (SAR) Team (Tim SAR), Indonesian Military and Indonesian Police (Indonesian National Armed Forces-Indonesian National Police [TNI and POLRI]), Indonesian Red Cross, farmers, volunteers, fisherman, village community leaders, local community (Masyarakat), Non-government Organisation (NGO) (community), Universities (university), business actors and journalists.
Stakeholders in flood risk reduction can be categorised into three groups (Reed et al.
The effects and interests of stakeholders in flood risk reduction are illustrated in
Map of influence and interdependence between stakeholders.
Based on
The influence and significance of stakeholders show their competitiveness in reducing the risk of flooding in the study sites. The competitiveness is demonstrated in
Diagram of competitiveness of stakeholders in flood risk reduction.
The Disaster Management Agency of Semarang City (BPBD Semarang), Disaster Management Agency of Pati Regency (BPBD Pati) and Disaster Management Agency of Pekalongan Regency (BPBD Pekalongan) are the institutions responsible for disaster risk reduction at regional level and have the highest impact. It means that these institutions have an important role in reducing flood risk in Central Java Province. The BPBD Central Java Province ranks second, followed by community leaders as stakeholders who have a high competitiveness in reducing flood risk in the Central Java Province.
The other major findings of stakeholder analysis are convergence and divergence (Ackermann & Eden
Convergent actor map in flood risk reduction.
Very strong convergence occurs among the Provincial Disaster Management Agency (BPBD Jateng), Semarang City Disaster Management Agency (BPBD Semarang), Pati Regional Disaster Management Agency (BPBD Pati), Pekalongan Regional Disaster Management Agency (BPBD Pekalongan), Regional Development Planning Agency (BAPPEDA), Public Health Office, Public Works Service (DPU), environmental services, businessmen, village heads, SAR Team, TNI and POLRI, Indonesian Red Cross (PMI), village community leaders, Community, NGO, universities and business actors (
Actor relationships in reducing flood risk.
Based on the actor’s preference in objectives and competitiveness, the actors involved in reducing flood risk groups are grouped into four major groups. The first group consists of BPBD Central Java Province, BPBDs at regional level, Health Office, Public Works Service (DPU), environmental services, village heads, SAR and Indonesian Red Cross. The second group consists of universities, farmers, communities, fishermen, community leaders and NGOs (community). The third group includes the business actors and journalists, and the fourth group is the TNI-POLRI.
The next finding is divergence. The results of MACTOR analysis show that stakeholders with a high potential of divergence are BPBD, farmers, fishermen and businessmen. The result indicates that these stakeholders have a relatively high probability of conflict or goal difference. On the contrary, university, TNI-POLRI, PMI and SAR have a low probability of conflict. In fact, their position is neutral because they have indirect interests in flood risk reduction activities.
Not all actors involved in flood management have an important role in reducing flood risk. Each stakeholder has different objectives in conducting flood risk reduction activities; they are restoration, humanity, safety, income, image, main duty, incentive and relocation. Restoration and humanity are two objectives that have a major influence in lowering flood risk. These key objectives are critical in supporting the success of flood risk reduction. Restoration encourages stakeholders to undertake the development, maintenance and improvement of natural resources and/or infrastructure, such as rivers, embankments and floodgates, which may lower the risk of flooding. Meanwhile, humanity raises the awareness and empathy to others. In general, stakeholders in flood risk reduction can be grouped into three, namely beneficiaries, intermediaries and policy-makers. The Disaster Management Agency (BPBD) as the institution of policy-makers for disaster risk reduction at the regional level appears to have the highest role. The Disaster Management Agency (BPBD) has an important role in reducing flood risk in Central Java Province.
The authors would like to thank Lembaga Pengembangan Publikasi Ilmiah, Universitas Muhamamdiyah Surakarta (LPPI UMS) for the contribution in the process of writing this journal and Badan Penanggulangan Bencana Daerah (BPBD) for the provision of time and information that definitely supported this research activity.
The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.
M.I. drafted the original manuscript, acquired and analysed the data and made interpretations. A.F. and I.S. reviewed the overall content of the manuscript, revised the original manuscript and made final approval of the version to be published.
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.
The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the authors.