East Java has a tropical climate that recognises two seasonal changes: the rainy season (October–April) and the dry season (May–September). The average temperature is at a minimum of 15.2 °C and a maximum of 34.2 °. Further, according to the Schmidt and Ferguson classification system, most areas (52%) have a type D climate. The humidity ranges from 40% to 97%. The average rainfall is 1500 mm/year to 2700 mm/year. Precipitation per year in East Java has three characteristics, namely: (1) less than 1750 mm/year covering an area of about 35.5%; (2) between 1750 mm and 2000 mm/year covers an area of about 44% and (3) above 2000 mm/year covers an area of about 20.46%. Meanwhile, the average wind speed moves between 6 and 45 knots. Regional topography in East Java is divided into <500 masl by 86% (BPS 2015).

In terms of topography, East Java Province is home to 48 mountains, including five active volcanoes: Mount Semeru, Mount Kelud, Mount Bromo, Mount Raung and Mount Lamongan. Hydrologically, East Java is divided into four River Basin Units (SWS):

The slope classification in East Java is divided as follows: areas with slopes greater than 60% are classified as hilly and mountainous; areas with slopes between 30% – 60% are classified as medium highlands and areas with slopes less than 20% are classified as lowlands (Blomquist, Dinar & Kemper 2005).

Natural conditions such as climate, wind speed, topography, volcanic activity and the hydrology of large rivers, along with marine life and potential hazards, can become income resources for the population if managed appropriately. For example:

Its functions include meeting the water needs of the agricultural sector and controlling floods (Rodgers & Zaafrano 2002; Subijanto & Valiant 2009).

Out of the nine resource management centres, only two – Brantas and Bengawan Solo – are managed in an integrated manner. In the case of Bengawan Solo, management occurs across the provinces of East Java and Central Java. Administratively, of the 38 cities and regencies in East Java Province, nearly all have been affected by disasters. Natural hazards are unavoidable and cannot be predicted accurately (Purworini, Purnamasari & Hartuti 2019). However, regardless of a disaster’s severity, its impact can be mitigated, and the associated risks can be reduced if appropriate anticipatory measures are taken. Residents in disaster-prone areas must ensure they are adequately prepared.

In East Java, floods caused by overflowing water from the Bengawan Solo River have occurred at least twice in the last 3 months. This river, the longest on Java Island, stretches approximately 600 km. It is divided into three main sub-watersheds: the Upper Solo Bengawan Sub-watershed, with an area of 6072 km²; the Kali Madiun Watershed, covering 3755 km² and the Bengawan Solo Downstream Sub-watershed, which spans 6273 km². Water from the Upper Solo Sub-watershed and the Kali Madiun Sub-watershed converges in Ngawi before flowing downstream.

The development funds to maintain the Solo River are often insufficient. Levees along the Bengawan Solo River, which should be maintained for their durability and strength, are frequently under-implemented or completed in limited numbers. Additionally, certain sections of the levee become brittle because of ongoing water erosion. During periods of heavy rainfall, these fragile levees can be torn apart by flooding. At the end of 2020, 22 regions in East Java were identified as prone to hydrometeorological disasters during the peak of the rainy season, including hurricane floods, extreme weather and landslides. According to the Regional Disaster Management Agency (BPBD) of East Java, these 22 regions are at risk of flooding from overflowing water from the Bengawan Solo River and other areas (BPBD Jawa Timur 2022).

The occurrence of hydrometeorological disasters poses a threat to various mountainous and hilly regions, with potential impacts on many other areas as well. At least 22 locations in East Java are prone to such disasters, including flash floods, landslides and typhoons, especially during the rainy season. Therefore, it is essential to remain vigilant and prepared for the threats associated with hydrometeorological disasters, particularly those stemming from the La Niña phenomenon, which can lead to floods, landslides and tornadoes (BNPB 2022).

Based on the data, it can be seen that East Java Province is one of the provinces that are geographically vulnerable to disasters. Therefore, disaster management must be conducted through synergistic and intense collaboration between local and provincial entities. Vigilance can be enhanced by focussing on the Meteorology, Climatology and Geophysics Agency (BMKG), which regularly issues early disaster warnings. These alerts are crucial for raising community awareness and increasing preparedness, especially for those living in disaster-prone areas. Additionally, district and city governments need to implement various disaster management mechanisms to better anticipate and address challenges, minimising the prolonged impacts on communities (Sibanda, Mukwada & Hansen 2022).

In this study, based on observations made during field trips, flooding is identified as a natural hazard that frequently occurs in various areas of East Java. Such flood disasters typically arise during the rainy season, characterised by high rainfall intensity, which leads to an increase in river water discharge. Floods impacting residential areas and agricultural land have created significant challenges for the communities living near the river.

In Table 2, similar incidents were also experienced by victims of other natural hazards such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, volcanic ash, rain, landslides, hurricanes and more (Table 2). As a result of these various types of natural hazards, the community has suffered losses on both small and large scales. The extent of damage caused by these natural hazards varied: 38% reported severe damage, 11.3% reported moderate damage and 27.3% reported minor damage.

Disasters have a significant impact on material losses that are difficult to quantify. Residents along the river, in the hills or in the mountains often become victims. The data in Table 2 indicate that the damage caused by natural hazards in the severe category includes house damage (25.3%), damage to business premises (16.0%), damage to household furniture (16.7%), loss of livestock (16.7%) and damage to vehicles (14.7%). Regardless of the absolute amount of material losses experienced by victims of natural hazards, it is challenging to estimate the losses and pain that poor individuals face during these difficult times. When someone loses their house, livestock perishes, agricultural fields flood before harvesting and savings are lost, it is understandable that the community feels worse off. A house, which takes time to build, can be destroyed in just a few hours. Beyond material losses, the impact of flood disasters can stifle the potential for community self-help and resilience.

Furthermore, Table 2 shows that most respondents experienced losses in the nominal range of IDR 500 000 to 5 000 000 (66%). Among the victims, 13.0% suffered heavy damage, with losses exceeding IDR 5 000 000, primarily because of damage to houses and agricultural land. In addition to material effects, respondents reported that some family members experienced health issues (26.7%), were forced to evacuate (24.0%), saw their savings reduced (20.0%) and were unable to meet their daily needs (38.6%). On the days following the disaster, 42.0% of respondents reported experiencing mental stress because of the events.

The most severe loss for farmer groups is the destruction of their agricultural land. In the present study, some respondents reported that their agricultural land was damaged as soon as the rice harvest season began. The purchased rice seeds and fertilisers that had already been planted were ultimately lost because of the floods. For traders, the most significant loss is the unfavourable market conditions resulting from a decrease in purchasing power. Several respondents admitted that their turnover fell drastically because of the reduced market share. Private employees may be somewhat fortunate if their workplace is not flooded; however, their situation changes dramatically if their place of business is also affected. This study found that some respondents were forced to seek new employment because their previous jobs could no longer be relied upon. Additionally, victims of disasters experience psychological effects. The study revealed that some individuals faced traumatic situations, such as shock upon hearing loud noises, persistent anxiety and difficulty sleeping during signs of rain or extreme weather conditions.

The traumatic situation described in Table 3 is reflected in the anxiety and worry felt by individuals living in disaster-prone areas. It was found that 59.4% of the respondents reported experiencing stress and worry. The anxiety expressed by several respondents in this study is understandable, given their past experiences with various natural hazards of considerable intensity. Many have faced difficulties, damage, losses and impacts from these disasters, which extend beyond material losses to include social, psychological, economic and even health and educational challenges, affecting the lives of their families post-disaster. Consequently, it is natural for traumatic feelings and fears of natural hazards to arise and resurface, particularly during the rainy season. For these individuals, this season is seen as more prone to natural hazards compared to the dry season. The rainy season poses the risk of not only floods and landslides but also storms and hurricanes, which can lead to significant losses and threaten the lives of respondents and their families.

Moreover, people living along the Bengawan Solo River often experience anxiety and trauma because of the threat of flooding. When a flood occurs, they must flee in a panic, and many of their belongings may be lost. Household items such as furniture, TVs, refrigerators, livestock, motor vehicles, valuables, books, certificates and important documents can be destroyed by the floodwaters. Home furnishings accumulated over many years can be lost in an instant. Similarly, hilly or mountainous areas are vulnerable to landslides, volcanic ash, heavy rain, earthquakes and cold lava floods.

Disasters in several areas of East Java Province are events caused by nature, humans or both, resulting in human suffering, loss of land or property, environmental damage, damage to infrastructure or public facilities and disturbances to community livelihoods. Disasters are like nightmares, often unpredictable in their occurrence. They can happen anytime, anywhere and can affect anyone in our global world. In general, disasters have the following impacts:

Therefore, regardless of how small a disaster may be, if the community is unprepared and there is a lack of proper response from the government, the burden of suffering on the victims and the community will be significantly greater (Bako & Ojolowo 2021; Chari & Ngcamu 2019; Kementerian Sosial Republik Indonesia 2012).

There is an understanding of how the respondents cope with disasters in their areas. According to a respondent, after a disaster, they lived in their own homes (62%), stayed in relatives’ houses (10%) and occupied refugee camps (28%). The choice of residence after the disaster closely relates to the severity of the damage to their homes. The duration of evacuation experienced by respondents varied; some evacuated for only one day, while others were displaced for 1 week, 2 weeks, or even up to 1 month, depending on the extent of the damage to their homes and the possibility of safely and comfortably returning.

For example, respondents who experienced a flood disaster that inundated their homes often found the situation so severe that they could no longer stay in their residences. Instead, they temporarily relocated to relatives’ homes or refugee camps until the flood subsided. Similarly, victims of natural hazards such as earthquakes or landslides face comparable challenges. If an earthquake or landslide destroys their house, they typically seek shelter with relatives or in a refugee camp. Meanwhile, some disaster victims who experience minor damage to their homes or property tend to remain at home and seek other resources to cope with the situation.

It is reported in Table 4 that most respondents admitted they generally received relatively good treatment during their stay in the evacuation camp. Eight per cent of children experienced problems continuing their education. However, some respondents reported that their belongings were threatened if they were lost or damaged in the refugee camp (16.6%). Locations and evacuation camps for disaster victims are usually provided by various parties, including village or sub-district officials, district officials, provincial and central government, and private entities. The number of respondents who stated that their needs were adequately met was reasonable because various facilities were available in the evacuation camps, such as sanitation, kitchens, places to rest and sleeping arrangements.

In a discussion regarding the description of Table 5, previous studies on disasters and families have shown that vulnerable groups are often separated during evacuations (Lan Huong et al. 2022; Lee et al. 2022). Recognising that disasters in various areas of East Java can occur repeatedly, the local government has implemented several activities to mitigate the impact of disasters, aiming to reduce the number of victims and enable the community to take proactive steps. Some of the activities carried out by local governments include providing information (61.3%), conducting periodic follow-up on disasters (59.3%), establishing gathering points in case of an emergency (44%), disseminating information on standard protocols during natural hazards and preparing evacuation locations (40.7%), and offering food assistance in the event of a disaster (48.7%).

As shown in Table 6, respondents indicate that the availability of medicines and quality health services is essential, particularly for victims of natural hazards who are injured or require medical treatment. Victims of flood disasters, for example, often experience subsequent health issues such as dysentery, diarrhoea and skin diseases. It is crucial to establish mechanisms for managing disaster victims to mitigate further impacts and prevent loss of life because of natural hazards. This process involves various parties, including local government officials, village and sub-district officials, sub-district and district governments, stakeholders and community members (Arifin et al. 2021; Pratama & Nurmandi 2020). Involving diverse stakeholders is vital to ensure that assistance is provided quickly, fairly and equitably while upholding values of togetherness and eliminating discriminatory behaviour. A relief delivery mechanism based on these principles greatly enhances the effectiveness and efficiency of the aid distribution process.

The data presented in Table 7 show that respondents indicated a significant focus on relief efforts for disabled individuals (54.7%) and vulnerable groups (53.3%). It is noteworthy that these relief efforts do not distinguish between social and cultural identities, such as the gender of the victim (75.3%), ethnicity and race (84.6%) and religion (86.6%). This indicates that in disaster rescue, particularly in relief efforts, the principles of justice and non-discrimination are upheld, ensuring that all individuals, regardless of their ethnic, racial or religious backgrounds, receive relatively equal opportunities and treatment.

In addition to offering relief and various facilities to meet the needs of disaster victims, the local government often supports socio-cultural protection by providing opportunities for victims to engage in socio-cultural and economic activities. The government can assist in several areas, including: worship or spiritual activities (42.7%), economic activities (such as selling in markets and shops) (48.3%), social activities (44%), traditional ceremonies (33.3%), educational activities (39.3%), sports activities (15.3%) and health service activities (46.7%).

Protection of various socio-cultural and economic activities, as well as health, is urgently needed for victims of natural hazards so they can resume their socio-economic and cultural lives as before. Some actions taken in response to disaster events are rational and align with cultural values, traditions or customs. Therefore, safeguarding spiritual or worship activities, traditional ceremonies, social gatherings and other socio-cultural aspects is essential. Additionally, protecting productive economic activities is crucial, as the financial sector can provide opportunities for work and income, allowing disaster victims to maintain the continuity of their lives and businesses. Victims of natural hazards need encouragement and motivation to rebuild and sustain their productive economic activities and daily lives after the disaster. Thus, affirmative action is required to support and restore the economic conditions of disaster victim.