This research was conducted in three major cities in East Java province, Indonesia, which regularly contend with annual floods during the rainy season. These cities include Surabaya, Sidoarjo and Malang, as shown in Figure 2. Surabaya, the provincial capital and the largest metropolitan centre in East Java, is the second-largest city in Indonesia after Jakarta. Geographically, Surabaya is located 800 km east of Jakarta or 435 km northwest of Denpasar, Bali. It occupies a strategic location along the northern coast of the eastern part of Java Island, overlooking both the Madura Strait and the Java Sea. The city spans an area of approximately ± 326.81 km² and had a population of 2 970 843 as of 30 June 2021. Sidoarjo played a significant role as a supporting city for Surabaya and had a population of 2 266 533 in 2019. It is geographically situated between 112°5’ and 112°9’ East Longitude as well as 7°3’ and 7°5’ South Latitude. Malang, the second-largest city within East Java, occupies a highland terrain covering 145.28 km² and is home to a population of 895 387. It is also renowned as a city of education.

This study uses the methodology of survey questionnaires and interviews. In line with developing the community participation model for environmental conservation and flood management, the survey questionnaire comprises 13 distinct sections. Sections 1–3 were dedicated to matters at the household level, while Section 4 gathers demographic information about family members. Section 5 involves interviews to delve into environmental management programmes and associated challenges, followed by Section 6, which centres on assessing the influence of governmental bodies and local figures concerning environmental conservation and flood incidents. Subsequently, Section 7 is designed to evaluate material aspects of the living environment. Section 8 focuses on uncovering satisfaction levels and roles within endeavours for environmental conservation. Transitioning to Section 9, the assessment pertains to the extent of concern regarding environmental issues within the vicinity. Section 10 delves into the role of women in environmental and flood-related concerns, while Section 11 evaluates material incentives about environmental concerns. Section 12 was dedicated to understanding the hurdles that hinder contributions to environmental and flood-related causes. Lastly, Section 13 captures the aspirations of women concerning issues related to the environment and flood-related issues.

Instrument for data collection during the COVID-19 pandemic involved utilising two methods, including employing a Google Form survey questionnaire and conducting face-to-face interviews. The face-to-face interviews were conducted with strict adherence to health protocols mandated by local authorities, specifically during the implementation of Emergency Situation 2 in the city from 06 July to 06 August 2021. The research team distributed the questionnaire with valuable support from undergraduate Civil Engineering students who possessed fundamental knowledge about environmental and flood-related issues and expertise in questionnaire collection. The leader played a supervisory role throughout the distribution process, ensuring the validity of the collected data, which adhered to the principle of voluntariness. Respondents were not obligated to complete the questionnaire sequentially, a measure designed to prevent data distortion. Furthermore, they had full autonomy in choosing whether to participate or withdraw from the survey. As a gesture of appreciation for their involvement, each respondent received a token of remembrance upon completing the questionnaire. A total number of 71, 74 and 61 respondents were found in Malang, Sidoarjo City, and Surabaya.

The model development incorporates a set of 18 different variables analysed in three statistical stages. The first stage entails descriptive statistics, a vital step for summarising the characteristics of the data and gaining insights into its basic distribution. The second stage necessitates correlation analysis to discern whether the hypothesised influencing factors significantly impact the variables. The correlation coefficients of these influencing factors were calculated using Equation 1: r=nΣxy−(Σy)√{nΣx2−(Σx2)}{nΣy2−(Σy)2}[Eqn 1] where:

n = Number of X and Y data pairs

Σx = Total sum of variable X

Σy = Total sum of Y variables

Σx² = Square of total number of variables X

Σy² = Square of total number of variables Y

Σxy = The multiplication result of the total X and Y variables number.

The correlation threshold is set at a minimum of r = 0.6, indicating the lower limit for acceptable correlation. Meanwhile, variables exhibiting a correlation value below 0.6 were excluded because of their weaker association with other variables. The subsequent stage involves the construction of a causal loop diagram, succeeded by developing a stock-flow diagram. The causal loop diagram comprises interconnected variables linked by arrows, visually depicting their cause-and-effect connections (Proust & Newell 2020). The model development is undertaken to ascertain behavioural patterns and the interplay among variables within the simulation. This evaluation determines the aptness of the model to replicate real-world behaviours and interactions (Tables 1, 2, 3, and 4). Table 1 is the variables used in the research. Table 2 is the Relationship between factors impacting the environment and flooding in Sidoarjo city, Table 3 is the Relationship between factors impacting the environment and flooding in Surabaya City and Table 4 is the Relationship between factors impacting the environment and flooding in Malang City.

Government policy represents actions initiated and enforced by authorised government entities, encompassing legal, political and financial authorities. An effective approach the government can employ to address environmental issues involves implementing relevant laws and imposing stringent sanctions on individuals or entities that intentionally or unintentionally contravene these regulations (Sholihah et al. 2020). In accordance with the research findings, it becomes evident that the government plays a crucial role in maintaining the environment and managing flooding issues in East Java province, Indonesia.

The impacts of flooding consequences extend to the quality of raw water, which can be negatively affected by contamination. Meanwhile, the impact of other environmental issues, such as air and water pollution, is caused by many irresponsible parties committing violations by building factories on the banks of the river. This can lead to river water overflowing, causing damage to buildings, embankments, settlements, among others (Sholihah et al. 2020), and healthcare volunteers are useful for coordinating and helping those who are impacted.

Effective environmental maintenance necessitates implementing well-structured regional strategies that involve the active participation of various stakeholders, including universities, the private sector, NGOs, among others. These stakeholders can significantly contribute to reinforcing empowerment programmes. According to Coglianese and Nash (2010), government policymakers have not been the only ones to target firms’ internal management in an attempt to improve private sector environmental performance.

The impact of urban floods on the lives of the urban population, particularly their family members’ income, is significant. A similar situation was observed in Bangkok, where losses amounted to approximately half of the annual household expenditure (Nabangchang et al. 2015). Government compensation payments did little to alleviate the overall economic losses experienced by most households (Cao et al. 2020). Meanwhile, because of flooding, many families are not insured and do not have sufficient savings to rebuild, and government assistance is limited (Netusil et al. 2021). In East Java, it is apparent that income and the number of family members in households substantially influence concerns related to the environment and flood hazards. This is reinforced by the fact that the community’s income, in general, has experienced a significant decline during the pandemic.

Figure 4 shows that the people of Malang City have contributed less to the flood environment than the cities of Surabaya and Sidoarjo. This is influenced by community contributions and participation (0.92), gender equality (0.87), and the number of families (0.79).

Figure 2 illustrates how the private sector’s involvement in environmental maintenance has a substantial impact on public satisfaction with environmental maintenance (0.85) and the seriousness of environmental and flooding issues (0.96). However, the private sector faces certain obstacles, including a lack of law enforcement response (0.96) and insufficient public concern (0.98). In Figure 3, the activeness of the private sector in maintenance is impacted by the daily income (0.74) of the community and contributing material (0.6). In Figure 2, which pertains to Surabaya, a major Indonesian city with a thriving private sector because of numerous factories and companies, the role of this sector is heavily influenced by economic factors, including the number of family members (0.99) and daily income (0.73).

Handayani et al. (2020) stated that the severity of environmental and flooding issues is often attributed to changes in land use around watershed areas, particularly in urban areas where green open spaces are converted into housing. Therefore, policies related to land use are needed. According to Chiang (2018), flooding can be exacerbated by heavy rainfall because of global climate change, potentially leading to flash floods in flood-prone urban areas and endangering the lives and safety of residents. In the city of Sidoarjo according to Figure 3 The active role of community leaders in the maintenance and The role of government in maintenance have the same influence on the conditions of The severity of environmental and flooding issues. The severity of environmental and flooding issues in Malang City is impacted by the role of the government in environmental maintenance activities (0.822) and community satisfaction with environmental maintenance (073). This is in addition to the family constraints contributing to environmental and flooding issues (0.69) and satisfaction with the private sector (0.6), as shown in Figure 4. The activeness of the private sector is only small (0.63) because Malang City is a city of education. However, public concern for the environment is very large (0.92).

In Malang City, flooding is impacted by community concern (0.94) and the activeness of the private sector in environmental maintenance (0.88), material constraints to contribute (0.72), number of members in the house (0.78) as well as satisfaction with the private sector (0.74).

Urban floods have a substantial effect on the lives of those who reside there, especially on the financial status of their families. A comparable circumstance was noted in Bangkok, where losses were almost equal to half of the annual household budget (Nabangchang et al. 2015). According to Cao et al. (2020), the majority of households suffered overall economic losses that were not significantly mitigated by government compensation payments. In the meanwhile, there is little government support due to flooding, and many households lack the insurance and money necessary to reconstruct (Netusil et al. 2021). Regrettably, a lot of flood-affected households don’t have enough money saved for reconstruction or insurance, and government help is sometimes scarce. It is evident in East Java that worries are significantly influenced by household wealth and the number of family members.

This is reinforced by the fact that the community’s income, in general, has experienced a significant decline during the pandemic. Figure 3 shows that in Sidoarjo city, the number of family members in the house is strongly impacted by daily income (0.91) and impacts participation constraints to contribute (0.83), daily expenditure, the number of responses to the government’s role in maintenance (0.7) and gender equality constraints (0.62). Figure 2 shows that in Surabaya City, the number of family members in the house impacts daily expenditure (0.72), the activity of the private sector in maintenance (0.99) and community concern for the environment and flooding (0.69). Then, Figure 4 shows that the number of family members in the house greatly impacts the material or financial family; therefore, the contribution to environmental and flooding concerns is less.

Community leaders play a crucial role in safeguarding the environment, particularly during challenging times like the pandemic, where their concern revolves around the rapid spread of disease and its adverse societal impact. In response, these leaders use preventive measures to protect the environment and invite community members to join. They campaigned for healthy living behaviours and initiated actions aimed at helping community members whose socio-economic conditions were devastated by the pandemic. This proactive stance demonstrates the significant role that community leaders play in maintaining a healthy environment within their communities during such crises (Rosidin, Rahayuwati & Herawati 2020). Many community leaders support the government’s environmental policies, but when unprofessional leadership is involved in politicised decision-making, it fails to enforce the provisions of the law. In addition, Figure 3 shows that in Sidoarjo city, the active role of community leaders in protecting the environment greatly impacts the severity of environmental and flooding issues (Mashiane et al. 2023) and the disruption of environmental issues and flooding (0.67). Figure 2 shows that the severity of environmental and flooding issues in Surabaya City is caused by regulatory constraints (0.71) and significantly impacts the satisfaction of community leaders (0.9). Moreover, Figure 4 shows that in Malang City, the active role of community leaders in protecting the environment is strongly impacted by law enforcement (0.86) and existing regulations.