Described by various terms (derelict, ownerless, abandoned, legacy, orphaned), abandoned mines are a global issue with millions of such sites likely to exist (Worrall et al. 2009). With various definitions, the common key characteristic of these sites is incomplete remediation of historical mines (Unger et al. 2015). ‘To protect the population and the environment in those cases, many countries are now undertaking clean-up projects financed by the government’ (Matshusa & Makgae 2014). Examples of these are the rehabilitation of Derelict and Ownerless (D&O) mines in South Africa (Matshusa & Makgae 2014; Cornelissen et al. 2019); United States of America (USA) Abandoned Mine Land Reclamation Program (AMLRP) and Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA); the National Orphaned/Abandoned Mines Initiative (NOAMI) in Canada (Tremblay & Hogan 2016); Australian Strategic Framework for Managing Abandoned Mines in the Minerals Industry (Unger et al. 2012); the ongoing programme for the German decommissioning of uranium mines and mills or Argentina’s Mining Environmental Restoration Program to remediate the closed uranium processing site in Malargüe, Mendoza (Fernandes et al. 2013). As long as abandoned mines are not rehabilitated, there will be illegal mining and associated disasters (Collins & Lawson 2018). However, this is not automatic as factors such as poverty, lack of job opportunities, illicit trade of precious metals (Collins & Lawson 2018; International Criminal Police Organization (INTERPOL) 2021; Strydom 2016; Wagner 2016; Williams 2019) may also lead to illegal mining.

In November 2020, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) indicated its support for combating illegal mining due to its negative environmental and economic impacts (UNODC 2020). According to International Criminal Police Organization (INTERPOL) (2021), illegal gold mining is associated with severe long-term environmental impacts, financial crimes, fraud, environmental crimes and trafficking in human beings. Furthermore, illegal gold mining can fuel insecurity and the presence of arms on mining sites posing serious security threats to law enforcement. The Global Initiative against Transnational Organised Crime carried out research on illegal mining in Latin America (Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Mexico, Nicaragua, Peru and Venezuela) (Wagner 2016). According to Wagner (2016), illegal mining in Latin America is linked to organised crime. For example, in Peru, illegal mining is now more lucrative than drug trafficking although the two networks are becoming increasingly intertwined (UNODC 2020). In French Guyana, illegal mining has further wreaked havoc on the environment, through widespread pollution, erosion, water contamination and deforestation (UNODC 2020).

Illegal mining is widespread in Africa (SAHRC 2015) and increasing because of growing economic crises, unemployment and decreased rural livelihood (Collins & Lawson 2018). However, illegal miners have made ‘huge amounts of illicit profits at the expense of countries’ economies, vulnerable populations, and the environment across the Central African region’ (INTERPOL 2021:3). Illegal mining has plagued South Africa for decades, and according to the Chamber of Mines, South Africa (2016) has cost the government and the mining industry more than $1.3 billion USD a year in lost sales, taxes and royalties. According to the UNODC (2020), South African mining industry is worth $23.5 billion USD, but illegal surface and underground mining – and associated criminal activities have cost an estimated $8 billion USD in lost profit for the country annually despite best efforts to curtail the problem (UNODC 2020).

Due to the increased number of mining disasters around the world, some countries have begun to recognise the need to have mine emergency rescue and disaster management plans (Dar et al. 2018). A critically important output was released to the industry by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) in the USA to assess and immediately detect rock dusting (NRCIM 2007). The Coal Dust Explosibility Meter has the potential to prevent the propagation of explosions by enabling real-time evaluation of the explosibility of coal and inert dust mixes (Sapko & Verakis 2006). Other notable outputs include a computer-based emergency simulation exercise (Mine Emergency Response Interactive Training Simulation [MERITS]), the emergency communications triangle training materials focusing on the content of emergency warning messages and the evaluation of the lifeline and development of directional cones for self-rescue (NRCIM 2007).

The Quecreek mine inundation incident and the disasters at Sago and Alma Mine No. 1 revealed weaknesses in a number of disaster prevention and response areas (NRCIM 2007). Several of these can be addressed by a greater and more rigorous application of existing advances in disaster prevention and emergency response practices although research is needed on several fronts including disaster prevention, communications, escape and survival systems, and response equipment, rescue teams, in situ assessment of geologic conditions, monitoring of atmospheres behind seals and evaluation of mining methods (Ampofo & Adam 2018; NRCIM 2007). In all of these areas, there may be some potential for the transfer of technology and practices from the international community (e.g., Australia, Poland, South Africa, and Canada). The South African mining industry is one of the most developed in the world (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development 2002) and therefore has an important role to play in the management of disasters from abandoned mines. However, because of differences in laws, regulations and cultural or other practices, the direct application may not be feasible.

Communication has been recognised as a major source of problems in need of great attention to providing effective disaster response and escape (NRCIM 2007). The subject of emergency communications has been of particular concern for two committees of the National Research Council (NRC) that dealt with mine rescue and survival issues (National Academy of Engineering 1970; NRCIM 2007). In relation to abandoned mines, the Pennsylvania Governor’s Commission on Abandoned Mine Voids and Mine Safety (CAMVMS) addressed the issue of emergency communications (CAMVMS 2002). The 1981 NRC report pointed out a number of issues and potential approaches: underground-to-surface communications, communication between rescue teams and trapped miners and permanently installed seismic systems that could be used on a day-to-day basis. According to the CAMVMS (2002), there was no lack of basic technical knowledge, but the availability of practical engineering designs (which may have to be site-specific) was a major limitation. The NRCIM (2007) also emphasised the importance of the development of a communications system to each miner based on real-time data and analysis.

In the USA, where abandoned mines on government land are determined to need rehabilitation and reclamation, these are addressed, using a risk-based system, with funding provided by the coal-mining industry in terms of 1977 legislation (Bureau of Land Management n.d.). In Canada, the environmental legacies in respect of orphaned mines are the responsibility of the State. However, in some cases, partnerships with the private sector were addressed through an agreement between the government and relevant parties. In South Africa, the Department of Mineral Resources and Energy (DMRE) partnered with the CGS to rehabilitate and close all derelict and ownerless mine shafts. However, this is not enough due to limited financial resources (Matshusa & Makgae 2014). The recent mine disasters and the dramatic upsurge of disasters resulting in fatalities because of illegal gold mining in abandoned mines in South Africa must be reviewed.

Growing environmental awareness in South Africa during the 1990s (Matebesi 2020) resulted in new laws such as the Mineral and Petroleum Resources Development Act (MPRDA) of 2002; 2015 National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998 regulations on financial provision for prospecting, exploration and mining or production operations, being introduced for new mining projects. The legislations were aimed at amongst others to prevent and minimise the impacts of abandoned mines. However, because of the poor implementation of these laws, the impacts of abandoned mines are severe and exacerbated by activities of illegal mining (Mhlongo et al. 2019; Wagner 2016).

Illegal gold mining activities are taking place outside of the South African legal framework, particularly the MPRDA of 2002. According to the MPRDA, no person is allowed to extract or mine mineral and petroleum resources without a mining permit (Republic of South Africa 2002:s. 5). Illegal mining activities fall under schedule 1 of criminal offenses of the Prevention of Organised Crimes Act (POCA), 1998. In terms of POCA, illicit dealing in or possession of precious metals or precious stones is considered an offense (Republic of South Africa 1998). In terms of the Prevention and Combating of Corrupt Activities Act of 2004 (PCCAA), public officers are guilty if found engaged in corrupt activities (Republic of South Africa 2004). Arresting of crime syndicates fuelling illegal mining activities has proved useful but not enough is being done to arrest these syndicates (Chamber of Mines South Africa 2016). Therefore, this study proposes strategies for managing disasters in abandoned mines, especially those caused by illegal mining activities. However, illegal gold mining is not only affecting abandoned mines. Illegal miners are also operating were improperly sealed, abandoned tunnels meet operational tunnels of current gold mining companies (Harvey 2014). There are arguments that illegal mining should be formalised to leverage the economic benefits, save livelihoods and stimulate job creation from these activities (Azuma, Baah & Nachinaab 2021; Hosken & Bornman 2017; Masweneng 2017).

In case of a mine disaster, the DMRE has a legal obligation through the MPRDA to ensure that an investigation of the disaster is undertaken and reported on. However, there is uncertainty as to the responsible authority for reporting in the case of a disaster involving illegal gold mining. The DMRE and the South African Police Services (SAPS) are often found to contradict each other and are not sure who is responsible for reporting on the disaster. This can allow mining companies to evade their responsibilities with regard to environmental management and safety considerations of their mining operations (SAHRC 2015).

Mine emergency plans are mandated in the South African mining industry at the national level (Republic of South Africa 2003:s. 38). However, there are no emergency plans for abandoned mines. All the mining companies are required to be trained to understand and follow the mine emergency plan (Bonsu et al. 2017; Mischo et al. 2014). Mining companies in South Africa are required to have a written emergency response plan that can be used immediately when a disaster occurs (Bonsu et al. 2017).

Mine disaster preparedness suggests a well-rehearsed, comprehensive emergency plan. A number of researchers support the notion that planning for an emergency is a process and follows a continual, dynamic cycle (Launhardt 2001; Pelfrey 2005; Perry & Lindell 2003). Perry and Lindell (2003) illustrate the relationships of three critical components of emergency preparedness: planning, the presence of written plans and training. Pelfrey (2005) suggests a model of preparedness that contains five broad phases including prevention, awareness, response, consequence management and recovery. Pelfrey (2005) contends the cycle allows for a dynamic, flexible and continuous process of interaction and integration, and functions as a self-organising mechanism that improves preparedness for anticipated events and for unimagined events. Launhardt (2001) suggests that all potential causes of a mine emergency must be identified before an emergency preparedness plan is developed. This study supports the concept of planning in advance and continually evaluating the emergency plan.

According to Orasanu and Connolly (1993), there are eight characteristics of real-world decision-making in response to a mine emergency: ill-structured problems; uncertain, dynamic environments; shifting, ill-defined, or competing goals; multiple event feedback loops; time constraints; high stakes; multiple actors; and goals of the organisation balanced against the decision maker’s personal choice. These characteristics support the concept of the advanced and continually planning process with respect to the dynamic environment, the presence of time constraints and the multiple event feedback loops demanding continual evaluation. Moreover, people tend to interpret events as normal as long as possible before defining the situation as out of the norm and needing action (McHugh 1968). As a first critical step in mine disaster and emergency response planning, thorough hazard analysis and risk assessment should be conducted (Launhardt 2001; Pelfrey 2005; Perry & Lindell 2003). Hopkins (2020) also describes this as a detailed investigation to understand what caused the disaster. According to Grayson (2001) risk in a mining context may be defined as a measure of both the likelihood and the consequences of a hazard associated with a mining activity or condition.

Roberts (2006) recommends developing a comprehensive emergency response plan that is risk based and mine specific. Grayson (2001) suggests that this can be achieved only if disasters are considered during planning and monitored through the mine operation. Valcik and Tracy (2017) found that while there are many different kinds of disasters, adequate planning and preparation for dealing with mine emergencies will ensure an effective response. An effective response, in turn, will allow the government and mine owners to protect and reduce the impact of the disaster on the local communities. Therefore, developing an effective disaster management and enforcement strategy can be an effective way of minimising disasters presented by illegal mining at abandoned mines (Environmental Protection Agency 2000).

While communication has been recognised as one of the major challenges for disaster management, it is generally acknowledged that the most effective emergency communications system is one that is used for routine communication (Le Roux 2013; NRCIM 2007; Zamisa & Mutereko 2019). Therefore, the development of effective communications systems that would withstand the damaging effects of mine disasters is recommended (NRCIM 2007; Zamisa & Mutereko 2019). While no amount of good communication can make up for poor emergency planning, communication can prevent misunderstandings and build credibility (EPA 2000). In this context, effective communication is essential for the safe function of mine rescue and disaster management team (Enright & Ferriter 2015; NRCIM 2007) and trapped or involved illegal miners or communities at an incident like a mine rescue from abandoned mines.

Mine disasters that require emergency rescue teams to conduct search and rescue operations require special communication equipment such as mine phones, leaky feeder systems, medium frequency radios and through-the-earth (TTE) communications (Enright & Ferriter 2015). According to the EPA (2000:5-4), ‘it is also important to identify and communicate through the community’s informal networks using unofficial community caretakers and opinion-makers.’ It is important to develop an integrated communication approach to bridge the communication gap and ensure knowledge sharing between local communities and other organisations such as national government departments and municipalities (Brockmyer & Fox 2015; Lynas et al. 2018). This will ensure trust amongst all stakeholders and ensure that disasters are reported early to fast track and improve the chances of emergency rescue efforts to be successful.

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. Informed consent: Verbal informed consent was obtained from all individual participants involved in the study. This was because the participants did want to be quoted verbatim and sign the consent form.

The emergency countermeasures and short-term measures theme emerged as the semi-structured interviews discussed the strategies to deal with the challenges of disasters related to abandoned mines and illegal gold mining. All the participants had the same understanding that illegal mining refers to mining without a mining permit. All the participants recognised that proactive disaster preparedness is critical for the effective implementation of disaster prevention and mitigation strategies. The results indicate the lack of documented emergency countermeasures at both municipal and national levels to deal with emergency cases related to illegal gold mining at abandoned mines. The participants agreed that as a matter of urgency, the following emergency countermeasures are required:

The participants did agree that short-term emergency measures during disasters management associated with abandoned mines and illegal gold mining should also be considered. The short-term measures suggested include:

This study acknowledges that other participants such as DMRE may have different views from the CGS and CoE. As such, Matshusa (2017) show the viewpoints of DMRE. According to Matshusa (2017), DMRE is like a government mafia and dominates other local and provincial governments. This may be because of political interference and corruption by government officials in soliciting economic gains from illegal mining activities. As Matshusa (2017) highlighted that corruption in government is hindering effective governance in mining development.

After considerations of factors such as theft and availability of financial resources, it was recommended that an adequate combination of some or all four short-term measures above be implemented. This is in line with previous research that showed that the combination of demarcating and rehabilitating abandoned mines, and public awareness would provide a balance between emergency countermeasures and short-term measures (Collins & Lawson 2018; Phala et al. 2017).

The officials from CoE noted that the lack of capacity to deal with emergencies such as cases of disasters related to abandoned mines and illegal gold mining, and therefore it is critical that it partners with other government institutions and SoEs that have expertise and resources to manage these challenges. This study corroborated previous research regarding the need for funds and officials to undertake capacity-building courses related to emergency countermeasures and short-term measures for disasters associated with abandoned mines and illegal mining (Collins & Lawson 2018; Mphokane 2018; Valcik & Tracy 2017). Furthermore, there was a lack of capacity in human resources at all spheres of government that resulted in ineffective governance (Matshusa 2017) to effectively manage disasters related to illegal mining.

The roles and responsibilities theme was identified when discussing the responsible institutions when responding to disasters related to abandoned mines and illegal gold mining. Perceptions on institutional preparedness and legal standing to take responsibility were considered. In this case, the roles of the national government, municipalities and government entities should be clearly defined by an ‘emergency plan of action, which should allow for cooperation and resources to be utilized effectively’ (Valcik & Tracy 2017:7). In this study, all participants agreed that in the case of a disaster associated with abandoned mines and illegal gold mining, the overall responsibilities lie with DMRE as the custodian of mineral resources according to the MPRDA. All participants agreed that the CGS will receive instructions from DMRE to conduct any task relating to such emergency in accordance with the Geoscience Act, No. 100 of 1993 as amended. The CoE remains the face of the government and should remain responsible for communication with the public.

All participants agreed that the executives of the three institutions (DMRE, CGS and CoE) should determine the sources and methods of funding. This will also ensure the coordination of disaster or emergency management activities within the government entities and other stakeholders (Phala et al. 2017; SAHRC 2015; Valcik & Tracy 2017). According to Valcik and Tracy (2017):

Thus, there is an urgent need to rebalance roles and responsibilities amongst government departments to enable co-operative and effective governance (Matshusa 2017).

The communication theme emerged as participants discussed the surrounding challenges on information sharing, awareness as well as techniques to convey information about disasters associated with abandoned mines and illegal gold mining. Participants from the CGS highlighted that there is no formal platform for sharing critical information and knowledge on disasters related to abandoned mines and illegal gold mining at CoE. This supports research by Hopkins (2020:23) that ‘one of the recurrent findings in disaster research is that information that something was wrong was available somewhere within the organisation but was not communicated to relevant decision-makers’. Furthermore, there is a need to raise awareness about the dangers of illegal mining (SAHRC 2015).

As such, all participants recognised that effective communication is a key to successful disaster management. Government participants highlighted that they do community engagement (Matshusa 2017) on issues of mining development including illegal mining in abandoned mines. However, participants from CGS and CoE highlighted that the engagement by DMRE is limited as the views of local and provincial government departments are not taken into account. This supports the study by Matshusa (2017) that collective input from all concerned government departments was not possible because of lack of communication, cooperation by DMRE during decision-making and participatory process. Thus, participants agreed that, when an emergency situation occurs, there should be a communication framework in place to ensure that appropriate decisions are taken and implemented on time. As a result, communication should also involve public awareness about the dangers associated with abandoned mines and illegal gold mining, especially those that are close to communities and easily accessible. Communication will improve the relationship between local communities, local authorities and the government (Collins & Lawson 2018; Mphokane 2018; Phala et al. 2017).

Furthermore, participants highlighted the need to create emergency email and SMS groups. The email and SMS groups should include responsible people from relevant organisations, and in case of a disaster, CoE should communicate with the group via email as soon as an incident is reported. This communication system will ensure that important information is highly visible and that all relevant decision-makers will become aware of it (Hopkins 2020). Furthermore, the communication system would through engagement with both government officials and community members, through multi-stakeholder workshops and reflection groups promote community development and a sense of social responsibility amongst entities (Collins & Lawson 2018; Mphokane 2018; Phala et al. 2017).

However, participants from the CGS indicated that they will only be involved in disasters and emergency cases that are aligned with its mandate according to the Geoscience Act, No. 100 of 1993. It is recommended that an emergency should be communicated within 12 h after its occurrence to allow proper implementation of short-term measures.